Infinitive

INFINITIVES

TO + VERB PRESENT FORM = INFINIIVE

To walk is good. It is easy to say but hard to do. To see her is to love her.
In the above sentences to walk, to say, to see and to love are infinitives. Infinitives are not limited by tense, subject and person and number. Hence it is a non finite verb.

Kinds of infinitives:

1) Simple infinitives: simple infinitive is also called noun infinitive. It works as a noun. It is used…..

A) As subject of a verb: To walk in the morning is good. To err is human. To see is to love her.
B) As an object to transitive verbs: He wants to do M.A. I love to dance. He likes to sing.
C) As a Complement of a verb: It seems to be true. His target is to complete the job.
D) As the object to a preposition: The man is about to die.
E) As complement of an Object: He wants me to go there. They told him to start the meeting.

2) Gerundial infinitive: It works as an adjective. It is also called qualifying infinitive as it qualifies other parts of speech. It is used….
A) To qualify verb in sense of purpose or cause: We eat to live. We shouted to see him. They ran to catch the train. She cried to see the sight. The man worked to gain something.

B) To qualify an adjective: It is good to walk in the morning. I am happy to see you here. I am glad to receive your letter. The mother is worried to hear from her son. The teacher is not satisfied to get the answer.

C) To qualify a Noun: I have a car to sell. I have no friend to play with. He has no money to spend. There is place to sit. We have some works to finish. The boy has guardian to look after him.

D) To qualify a sentence: to be honest, to tell the truth, to be frank, to be sure etc.

E) After too construction: The man is too weak to stand. I am too busy to go out now.
F) Passive infinitive: He wanted to be called him hero.

INFINITIVES WITHOUT TO

A) After some verbs like behold, see, make, hear, watch, feel, bid, dare, help, please, need, let, know, etc.
I heard him say this. He saw me buy the book. The clown made us laugh. The auto-driver made him sit for an hour. You need not go there. Mr. Das dare not go out alone at night.
But in passive voice (except let) ‘to’ is used.
Ex: The auto-driver made him sit for an hour. Active
He was made to sit for an hour by the auto-driver. Passive

B) After defective verbs and auxiliaries verbs can, could, may, might, has, have, must, will, should, would etc.  Can you (to) play chess? We should (to) obey our elders.

C) After ‘than’, ‘except’, ‘as’, ‘better’, ‘and’ no infinitive is used when receded by ‘do’.
Ex: It is better to work than sleep. It is better to reign in hell than serve in the heaven. He did nothing but (to) laugh. We tried every method except (to) look closely. It is easy to say hard to do. He did not so much as (to) say he was sorry.

SPLIT INFINITIVE

 When to + verb present form is separated wrongly. Ex: I request you to kindly grant my appeal. The correct form is I request you to grant my appeal kindly. But today the use of split infinitive is very common. Hence it is correct.

MORE ABOUT INFINITIVES

A) Verb + how, what, when, where, which, why +infinitive.  
Verbs used in this way are ask, decide, discover, find, forget, know, learn, remember, see, show, understand etc. ex: He asked me how to open a computer. I do not remember how to write a letter. The man discovered here to live in permanently. Please show me which book to read.

This construction is not used with the verb ‘think’ in the present and past indefinite only. I have thought to pay the electricity bill today. The girl cannot think to when to what profession to choose.

B) Whether + infinitive: I thought for a moment whether to go out or stay home. She is not able to decide whether to live with her husband or leave him.                                                                                

C) VERB + OBJECT + INFINITIVE: Allow advice, command, compel, encourage, entitle, feel, forbid, force, implore, induce, invite, order, tell, request, show, train, warn, etc. The man ordered him to bring him a chair. We invited all the members to join the opening ceremony. Raja requested my father to give money. Mother told her to sleep.

Assume, believe, consider, feel, know, suppose, think, understand + to be.
I thought him to honest. We believe the story to be true.

NOUN + INFINITIVE CONSTICTION

Ability, ambition, anxiety, attempt, decision, demand, desire, effort, offer, promise, request, willingness, wish, plan + infinitive. Ex: My desire to complete M.A. remained incomplete. Their plan to visit has no guarantee.  Her effort to do well in the exam is satisfactory.

PERFECT INFINITIVE: To + have + past participle= perfect infinitive. It is used after was/ were. The job was to have completed. (but but completed). He was to have spoken in the meeting.
Continuous infinitive is used after some verbs like seem, appear, happen, pretend etc. It seems to be going on now. He appears to be moving. He pretends to be writing.

USE OF INFINITIVES TO MAKE SIMPLE SENTENCE OR JOIN TWO SENTENCES.

i) Raja was singing. I heard him. Ans: I heard Raja sing.
ii) We went to Kolkata. We wanted to visit the Victoria Memorial. Ans: We went to Kolkata to visit the Victoria Memorial.
iii) The man is very weak. He cannot walk properly. Ans: The man is too weak to walk properly.
iv) God is very kind. God will not always forgive us. Ans: God is too kind not to forgive us always.
v) We must eat or we cannot live. Ans: we must eat to live.
vi) If you do not study hard, you will fail. Ans: You study hard to avoid failure.
vii) Do or die. Ans: Do to avoid death.
viii) Make haste, or else you will be late. Ans: Make haste not to be late.

ERRORS IN THE USE OF INFINITIVE

I) He bade me to go there. (wrong) He bade me go there. (correct)
II) Let him to speak for us. (wrong) Let him speak for us. (correct)
III) I had no choice but accept the proposal. (wrong) I had no choice but to accept the proposal. (correct)
IV) He came for helping me. (wrong) He came to help me. (purpose) (correct)
V) I know to drive a car. (wrong) I know how to drive a car. (correct)
VI) He appeared to read news paper. (wrong)  He appeared to be reading news paper. (correct)
VII) He was seen buy the book. (wrong) He was seen to buy the book.  (correct)
VIII) He made me to realize my faults. (wrong) He made me realize my faults. (correct)
IX) The teacher taught me to write letters. (wrong) The teacher taught me how to write letters. (correct)
X) I was made realize my faults. (wrong) I was made to realize my faults. (correct)
XI) I would rather die than to surrender. (wrong) I would rather die than surrender. (correct)
XII) My brother went to London to study law. (wrong) My brother went to London for studying law. (reason)
XIII) He has no objection to do this. (wrong) He has no objection to doing this. (here to is not an infinitive, it is preposition)
XIV) We are looking forward to hear him. (wrong) We are looking forward to hearing him. (here to is preposition)

Noun

NOUN

Noun is a naming word. Cow, rose, man, Smith, India etc. all are nouns.

KINDS OF NOUNS:

PROPER NOUN: Proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, thing, or a group of persons. Example: Rama, England, the Thames, the Himalayas, the French Revolution,   the Mahabharata, the Christian etc.

COMMON NOUN:  It does not denote a noun in particular. It denotes to any and every person or ting of the same kind. Man is a common noun. It does not qualify a man in particular. It refers to any or every man. Boy, girl, book, pen, table, chair, river, tree, road, mountain etc. God and Lord when refer to the almighty, they are proper noun. When they refer to the different gods they are called common nouns.

COLLECTIVE NOUN: It is the name of a group of persons or things taken as a whole. A troop of monkeys. Here monkey is common noun. But troop is collective noun because it refers to the any monkey. A crowd of people, a gang of robbers, a series of mountains, an army of soldiers, committee, jury, etc. A collective noun takes a singular verb. But jury and committee are multitude nouns. They may take singular and plural verbs when they bear different meanings.

MATERIAL NOUN: It denotes the matter or the substances of which things are made. Water, rice, sugar, sand, salt, cotton,  milk, wood, iron, steel, paper etc. are material nouns. River is common noun, but water in the river is material noun. A chair made of wood. Chair is common but wood is material noun. a chain is made of iron. Chain is common noun but iron is material noun.

ABSTRACT NUN:  It denotes something which cannot be touched or seen but felt only. Hence knowledge, wisdom, honesty, policy, kindness etc are abstract noun. All abstract nouns end in hood, ism, ness, tion, ship, dom, ce, th, ment, ty, ure, er and ry. Ex: Freedom, culture, beauty, advice, laughter  etc.

THERE ARE ALSO TWO TYPES OF NOUNS A) COUNTABLE AND B) UNCOUNTABLE NOUN.

Countable nouns are those that can be counted. Man, tree, dog, book etc. are countable because we can count them. Countable nouns have their plural forms and can be used with indefinite article a/ an in singular form. Many, few, a few, several, three, four, thousand etc. can be used with countable nouns with their plural forms.

Uncountable nouns are those that cannot be counted but measured. Uncountable nouns do not have plural forms in general sense. Much and little are used with them to denote quantity.

A proper noun becomes common noun: Rabindranath is the Shakespeare in India. Here Shakespeare is used as a common noun. It refers to the quality of Shakespeare. I am familiar to the Browns. Here Browns are common noun. When there are several proper noun of the same name, it is used as a common noun.

Material and Abstract nouns become Common noun: The water of the Ganges is holy to the Hindus. Water is a material noun. here it has been used as a common noun. The rice of Burdwan is famous. The tea of Drgeeling is famous. When a material noun is particularized, it becomes a common noun.
The convict was put in irons. He lives in a wood. I have found a copper. When material nouns denote the things instead of the material, they are called common nouns.
 He is a justice. She is a beauty. Here abstract noun has been  used as concrete nouns. Thus abstract nouns become common noun.

A Collective noun becomes Common noun: when collective nouns denote more than one, it becomes common. The armies, the crowds, the folks etc.

An Abstract noun becomes Proper Noun: when an abstract noun is personified, it is called Proper noun. O Justice, O Heaven. It is then written in capital letter.  

A common noun becomes Abstract noun: The Father in him grew to see the child. Check the beast in you. Here, father means fatherly affection and beast means beastly passion. It is the use of Concrete for the abstract.

adjectives

ADJECTIVE

An adjective is a word used to describe a noun or pronoun. Or in other way it can be said that an adjective says something more about a noun or pronoun.

I am a good boy. This is an old building. He is a rich man. He has written an interesting story.

TWO USES OF ADJECTIVES:
 A) Attributive (Adjective + Noun): when an adjective is used close to and before a noun it is called attributive adjective. Example: this is a red pen. Ram is a good boy.
Former and olden are always used attributively.

B) Predicative (Be Verb + Adjective): When an adjective is used after verb, it is called predicative adjective. Example: This pen is red. Ram is good. He is honest.
Some adjectives are only used predicatively. Alone, asleep, afraid, alike, aloof, alive, ashamed, awake, aware, content, etc. example: I am afraid. The baby is asleep. He was awake.

CLASIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES

PROPER ADJECTIVES: Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns. India….Indian, Islam….Islamic, Bangladesh…..Bangladeshi, Shakespeare…..Shakespearean, Italy….Italian, Japan….Japanese, America….American etc.

QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES: the adjectives that describe the quality or state of a thing or a person. Good, brave, honest, ill, well, weak, strong, healthy, heavy, beautiful, happy, lucky, large etc.

QUANTATIVE: Denoting quantity of things or persons. Example: Some, little, many, single, any, few, all, whole, much etc.

NUMERAL: Denoting number and order of persons or things. Example: one, two, tree, thirty, sixty, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, last etc. There are ten boys. He is the first girl.

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES: Denoting particular person or thing. Example: This, that, these, those, such, same, certain etc.

DISTRIBUTVE ADJECTIVES: Refer to each one of a number. Example: each, every, either, neither…….Each boy has been given a pen. Every student has done very well in the examination.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES: Adjectives that ask questions. Example: which, whose, what.  Which color do you like? Whose daughter are you? What time was it then?

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES: Denoting ownership. Example: my, his, your, their, her, our, its etc. My books, His house, Their school.



EMPHASISING ADJECTIVES: Example: very and own. This is the very book that I wanted. My own garden is my own garden.

PARICIPLE ADJECTIVES: Participle adjectives are those which are derived from verbs. There are two types of participle adjectives.

(PRESENT PARTICIPLE: VERB +ING) when works as an adjective. Example: do not try to catch a running (run+ ing) train. This is a blooming flower (bloom+ ing). NOTE: Always very is used with present participle. He has written a very interesting story.

PAST PARTICIPLE: (verb +de/ en/ t) when works as adjective. Where is the deserted house? A broken cup is lying on the table. NOTE: Always much is used with past participle. I am much disgusted with the situation.

DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES

POSITIVE DEGREE: It is used when two things or persons are said to be equal in quality. He is as strong as his brother. The man is as tall as you.                    
Rule of sentence formation:           Sub+ verb+ as + adj1 + as+ noun/ pronoun.

COMPERATIVE DEGREE: It is used when two things or persons are compared.  He is stronger than his brother. Pine is taller than any other tree is the forest. I am more intelligent than you.
Rule of sentence formation:           Sub+ verb+ adj2+ than+ noun/ pronoun.  Or
 Sub+ verb+ more/ less adj1+ than+ noun/ pronoun.

SUPERLATIVE DEGREE: It denotes the highest degree of the quality. Pine is the tallest tree in the forest. This is the oldest temple in the village. She is the most attractive girl in the class.
Rule of sentence formation:           Sub + verb+ the + adj3 + in/of + noun/ pronoun.
Sub + verb+ the most/ the least + adj1 + in/of + noun/ pronoun.

Some more rules in the use of degree of adjectives

1. After ‘than’ and ‘as’ subjective form of the pronoun is used. Ex. He is taller than I (am). But not than me. I love you more than she (loves you). Not more than her.

2. Object of comparison must be same. Two different objects cannot be compared. Ex: The climate of Pune is better than that of Kolkata. (Not better than Kolkata). My book is older than that of yours. (Not older than you).

3. Adjectives of different degrees cannot be joined by ‘and’: He is the tallest and strong boy (wrong). He is the tallest and stronger boy (wrong). He is the tallest and strongest boy. (right)

4. Double comparatives and double superlatives cannot be used together. Ex: He is more taller than his brother (wrong). He is taller than his brother (right). Rama is the most tallest boy in the class (wrong). Rama is the tallest boy in the class (right).

5. When more and most join two adjectives, the must agree with the both. Ex: The man is more intelligent and wise (wrong). The man is wiser and more intelligent (right).

6. When two qualities in the same person or thing are compared ‘er’ form is not used. More+ adjective1  is used. Ex: Mr. Sharma is braver than wise (wrong). Mr. Sharma is more brave than wise (right).

7. When two forms of adjectives are used, they must be in complete form. One incomplete form cannot be used. Ex: The boy is as good, if not better than his brother (wrong).   The boy is as good as, if not better than his brother (right).

8. When two things are compared, superlative degree is not used. Ex: He is the best of the two boys (wrong). He is the better of the two boys (right). Who is the tallest: Jon or Brown? (wrong).  Who is the better: Jon or Brown? (right).


RULES TO FORM COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

1. One syllable adjective + er/ est. tall taller tallest.
 Small smaller smallest.

2. Adjectives ending in ‘e’ + r/st: wise wiser wisest.
Brave braver bravest.

3. Adjectives ending in a consonant + y. The final y changes into ‘I’ er/ est.
Happy happier happiest
Busy busier busiest.

4. Adjectives ending in one vowel + consonant. The final consonant is doubled.
Big bigger biggest
Hot hotter hottest.

5. More than one syllable adjective. More/ most.
Innocent more innocent most innocent.
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful.

6. Irregular adjectives.   Positive    comparative    superlative
                                       Good         better               best
                                    Bad/ill/evil       worse           worst
                                      Little              less              least
                             Much/many            more             most
                                     Far                  farther           farthest
                                     Late               later               latest (time)
                                     Near              nearer             nearest
                                     Old                older               oldest
                                     Old               elder                eldest

Late latter last (position)
7. Latin adjectives: inferior, interior, exterior, superior, prior, minor, senior, junior, ulterior, major, anterior, posterior. After them ‘than’ is not used. ‘To’ is used. He is senior to me.

8. Adjectives without comparative forms: down….downmost, eastern….easternmost, head…headmost, southern….southernmost, top…topmost, western…,.westernmost.

9. Adjectives without positive forms: further….furthest, inner…innermost, utter….uttermost, upper…uppermost. Outer….outmost.

ORDER OF ADJECTIVS

When two or more adjectives are used in a sentence, a proper order is followed.
A) Size, b) general description, c) age and little, d) shape, e) color, f) material, g) origin, h) purpose.
Example:   A round old table(wrong). An old round table (right).
A wooden red costly chair (wrong). A costly red wooden chair (right).
A brown lazy dog (wrong). A lazy brown dog (right).
An Indian famous restaurant (wrong). A famous Indian restaurant (right).

Little + old. He is a little old boy.
Little + young (incorrect)
Adjectives of emotion or personality can precede or follow old or young…. An ambitious old man. or an old ambitious man.
Nice, lovely, fine, beautiful + size. A fine large garden

adverb

ADVERBS
Adverb is a word which qualifies or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb also modifies a sentence. Adverbs are used to describe time, place and manner of an action.

ADVERB OF TIME:     It shows when the action is or was done. Now, then, since, late, today, tomorrow, yesterday, before, ago, soon, presently, immediately, afterwards, instantly, recently, daily, already, when, while, etc.
Example: We have just come now. We are already late. I received your letter yesterday. We are visiting the fair today. I hope to return soon. All the underlined words say when the action is or was done.


ADVERB OF PLACE:      It shows where the action is or was done. Here, there, out, in, away, bellow, outside, far, near, hence, after, above, etc.
Example: Come here. Go there. He has gone out. Come in. he went upstairs. Do not go far.

ADVERB OF NUMBER OR FREQUENCY:     It shows how often the action is or was done. Again, often, never, ever, once, twice, thrice, firstly, secondly, thirdly, sometimes, frequently etc.
Example: A barking dog seldom bites. Take these pills twice a day. He never told a lie in life. My friend always helps me in trouble. We frequently visit the temple.

ADVERB OF MANNER OR QUALITY: It shows how the action is or was done. Well, ill, thus, how, badly, wisely, clearly, highly, carefully, honestly etc. this is the largest class of adverbs which are formed by ADJECTIVE + LY.
Example: Sachin has batted well in the last match. He falls ill for excessive hard work. Thus the man has spoken. The teacher explained the fact very clearly. We believe him honestly.

ADVERB OF DEGREE OR QUANTITY:       It shows to what extent the action is or was done. So, almost, too, altogether, somewhat, enough, quite, very, more, much, fully, half, wholly, little, a little etc.
Example: He is a very clever boy.  What he said is partly true. The man is strong enough to do this. I am too busy to attend the meeting. The work is almost completed.

ADVERB OF REASON:         It shows why the action is or was done. Therefore, hence (for that reason), why, consequently, accordingly, wherefore etc.
Example: I was late therefore I could not join the program. The team has worked accordingly.

ADVERB OF AFFIRMATION OR NEGATION:      It shows affirmation or negation of the action. No, surely, not at all, yes, not, certainly, perhaps, indeed, probably, possibly, really, truly etc.

INTERROGATIVE ADVERB:
Adverb of time: when. When will the train come?  When did the accident happen?
Adverb of place: Where. Here are you? Where did you see the man?
Adverb of number: how many. How many books do you have?
Adverb of number: How. How do you solve the sum?
Adverb of reason: why. Why does he fail?
Adverb of quantity or degree: How long is the fact true? How often do you visit the temple?

RELATIVE ADVERBS
Why, where, when why, how, while are relative adverbs.
We went to the place where the man died. I do not know when he will come. This is how I became a man. We saw the park while we were returning from Kolkata.


SIMPLE ADVERBS
These adverbs merely qualify a word or sentence. These adverbs are used independently. He runs fast. He reads well. Certainly, my friend will come today. Drive slow. Do not eat so fast.

POSITION OF ADVERBS
A. Adverbs are used after intransitive verbs.
Example: We are living happily. He walked silently. The child is sleeping soundly. He came early.

B. Adverbs of time (always, seldom, never, ever, often, frequently), are used before all verbs except TO BE VERBS.
Example: We frequently visit the church. A barking dog seldom bites. The man often comes to me. Rama silently entered the house. But he is never serious. We are always busy with our work. The boy is often late to his class.

C. Adverbs are used after objects.
Example: He bought a mobile yesterday. I know the man well. Michel read the names loudly. The teacher examined the answer script keenly. I saw the picture clearly.

D. If there are two verbs auxiliary and the main verb, adverbs are placed between the two verbs.
Example: I have never seen him before. The man is earnestly looking at me. I will ever remember the sight. John is keenly reading the news paper. The boy had honestly accepted the fact.

E. When an adverb qualifies an adjective, the adjective is used before the adjective.
Example: the man is very poor. He is rather sorry for this. This is a very old book.
But ‘enough’ is used after the word it qualifies. He is strong enough.

F. Sentence adverbs are used at the beginning of the sentence to qualify the whole sentence.
Example: Certainly he will come here. Happily we returned home. Unfortunately I have failed the train. Honestly speaking, he is a gentleman.

G. Use of ‘only’.
Only he was present in the meeting. (None but he)
He was only present in the meeting. (Present but did not take any part)
He was present only in the meeting. (Not in rally)
Sequence of adverbs: Generally adverbs follow the rule of Manner + place +time.

Articles

Article

Article is a word which determines a noun if it belongs to a particular group of something or to a general group of something.
Kinds of articles: there are two types of articles
a) Indefinite:    ‘A’ or ‘an’ points to a general person or thing.
b) Definite:    ‘The’ points to a particular person or thing.


    Articles are generally used before noun or adjective + noun. But if the noun is in plural form ‘a/an’ is not used. Only ‘the’ is used before plural nouns to particularize.

A. Use of ‘A’: It is used before a singular common noun starting with a consonant (B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T,V,W,X,Y,Z).
Example: My father is a doctor. A boy has come to meet you. A bird is flying. A thing of beauty is joy forever.
There is a book on the table.  All the underlined words are singular common nouns beginning with a consonant. So ‘A’ is used before tem.

B. ‘A’ is used before some vowels that have the sound “yu”.
Example: a ewe, a university, a unicorn, a union, a European, a useful thing, a unit etc.

C. When “O” sounds as in “One”.
Example: A one eyed deer, a one rupee coin, a one man committee etc.

D. Use of ‘An’: it is used before words beginning with a vowel (A, E, I, O, U).
Example: an apple, an ox, an umbrella, an Indian, an eye, an international organization etc.

E. Before a word beginning with a consonant with a vowel sound.
Example: An honest man, an L.L.B, an M.L.A, an heir, an hour, an F.I.R, an S. D. O. etc.

Some special use of A or An:

F. A’ or ‘An’ is used before a noun to qualify a class:
Example: a cow is a very gentle animal. A student must respect a teacher. A man cannot neglect his duty to his country.

G. ‘A’ is used as a preposition:
Example: He earns ten thousand rupees a month. (A month=per month)
Apples are selling rupees twenty five a kilo.

H. ‘A’ or ‘an’ is used sometimes before some proper noun in the sense of a certain.
Example: A Mr. Khan has come to see you.
a. ‘A’ is used in some phrases.
Example: I am in a hurry. He has got a cold.
I. To mean a like: He thinks that he is a James Bond.
J. In an exclamatory sentence: what an idea! What a pity!
K. In sense of one (not number) I gave him a note book. There is a temple in the village.

Use of ‘The’ (It is used before the names of things which is known to both the speaker and the person spoken to)

A. ‘The’ is used before the names of……
The Himalayas, the Alps ………….. Mountain ranges
The Ganges, the Indian Ocean ………………..Rivers, oceans
The Andamans, the West Indies………………group of islands
The Times, the Telegraph………………….news papers
The Gita, the Bible, the Quran………………………holy books,
The Sahara, the Thor…………………………………….names of desert
The tajmahal, the French revolution, the Sepoy mutiny, the Fast world war………….historical events and building
The national Library, the great Eastern Hotel, the Public store, the Oriental Club, the High Court, the Red Fort……………….shops, hotel, restaurants, clubs, cinema halls, noted public places etc
The Rajdhani Express, the Koniska…………………………. Trains, ships, planes
The G.T. Road, the GrandTrank Road, the B.S. Road………. Names of Road, but not before street or avenue,
The headache, the toothache, the mumps, the measles, the gout the agni………. Before such diseases,
The Punjub, the Deccan…………..places of Historical importance
The United States of America, the United Kingdom, the U.A. E………………the name of union country
The dog, the tiger, the tree………….. Singular common nouns to represent a whole class.
The sun, the moon, the earth, the sky………….. The things of which only one exists
The north, the south, the west, the east…………..when used as nouns.
There are many forests in the north of India. But, go north (adverb).
The Hague (capital of the Netherlands), the Bronx (a city in New York) exceptional case.
The British, the Bengalees, the Adhivasis, the Negros, the Hindus, the Muslims……….. Race, nation or religion.
The Bharat Ratna, the Noble Prize, the Pulitzar Prize……………….names of prizes and awards.
The 5th September, the 23rd January…………. Date


B. Before the names of persons and things already mentioned.
Example: A man came to me yesterday. The man told me this.
I have found the book which I lost.
I enjoyed the movie. (It was already mentioned)

C. Before the names of proper adjectives to qualify the whole or a single thing.
Example: The Indian, the French, the English, the British etc.
The Shakespearean drama, the Petrarchan sonnet etc.

D. Before an adjective to qualify the whole class.
Example: The poor= all the poor people, the rich= all the rich people, the brave= all the brave people, the sick, the def, the blind, the coward, the old, the unemployed, the handicapped.
Some nationality words ending in sh, ch, ese, take definite article to for plural expressions.
Example: The French (French people) are fond of music. The British/ the English (English people) have a long history. The Japanese, the Chinese, the Irish, the Ditch etc.  Without ‘The’ English and French mean language.

C.      Before superlative degree of adjectives.
Example: He is the best boy in the class. Pine is the tallest tree in the forest. This is one of the most beautiful places.
In structure like (the + comparative + the + comparative).
Example: The more we get, the more we want. The higher you o, the cooler you feel. The earlier is the better. The older we grow, the wiser we become.

In comparison between the two.
Example: This is the better of the two books. He is the taller of the two boys. This is the more interesting of the two stories.
The + Adjective to qualify a particular part of things.
Example: I do not like the yellow of an egg. He only ate the red of the watermelon.

The + Adjective or adjective phrase.
Example: Alexander the Great. The immortal Kalidas. The man with red cap. The girl in blue.
The + common noun to qualify an abstract idea.
Example: The mother (motherly feelings) in her rose to see the child. The beast (animal nature) grew in him while killed the man. The father in the stranger saved the boy.

The + Proper noun, Material noun or Abstract noun to make them common nouns.
Example: He is the Sachin in our team. Ahammedabad is called the Manchester of India. Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. The water of the Ganges is holy to the Hindus. The tea of Dergeeling is famous all over the world.

D.     Use of ‘The’ before Ordinal numbers: ………………Example: Edward the second, the first boy, the second edition, George the Fifth etc. But no article is used before Roman notation. Edward ii.
e. Use of ‘The’ before musical instruments………………..Example: He plays the violin. He plays the flute. But he has a violin or flute.
f.     Use of ‘The’ before plural names of families…………………. Example: I have invited the Browns to my birth day. The Boses/the Roys / the Chakrobrties have attended the party.
g.      Use of ‘The’ before names of body parts……………..Example: The ball hit him on the head. The man pulled the cow by the tail. A dog bit him on the leg.
h.      Use of ‘The’ before a noun to give it superlative force…………… He is the singer of the day. Sachin is the man of the match. I have received the student of the year award.
i.      Use of ‘The’ before uncountable  nouns to specify them………… The wisdom of the monk, the skill of Sourav  Ganguly, the knowledge of the priest etc.
j.     Use of ‘The’ before collective noun in plural sense…………  The audience clapped spontaneously.  The clergy are respected by all. The vermin are harmful. The public were moved to see the sight.
k.      Use of ‘The’ before vehicles if not followed by preposition ‘By’………..  I availed the morning train. I ride the bike/ car/ cycle. I went to Kolkata by train.
l.       Use of ‘The’ to mean a character in a drama or cinema……….. Rahul played the king in the drama. Who is the hero/ heroine/ villain in the cinema?
 

 

OMISSION OF ARTICLES

 Articles are not used:
1. Before the names of places or persons except as shown in the examples.
2. Before proper, abstract, and material nouns except when they are particularized.
3. Before common noun in plural form if they are not meant to particularize.
4. Before man in the sense of mankind.
5. Before father, mother, baby, brother, sister, daughter, son, children when they refer to the speaker’s own family.  Ex. Father told me this.
6. Before common noun preceded by possessive noun or pronoun. Ex:……..This is our maid. Her doctor told her to take rest. This is Ram’s pen.
7. Before some diseases like fever, cancer etc.
8. Before school, hospital, home, prison, college, court, market, table, bed, church, temple, university, work (place of work), office (to have a position), town, sea etc. when we think of their use or in general.
9. Before names of Streets, parks, buildings, roads etc consisting of proper name. But Albert Hall, the Thackersey are also used.
10. Before breakfast, lunch, dinner, supper etc.
11. Before complements to the factitive verbs. Ex:  we made him captain. They elected him president.
12. Before languages………. English, Bengali, Hindi,
13. Before names of games……….Football, Tennis, Cricket etc.
14. Before a common in structure of ‘sort of’, ‘kind of’, ‘type of’…………. What sort of book is this?
15. Before names of season, festivals, days, months.
16. Before single mountain, island ………..…Everest, Greenland, Java etc.

Repetition of Articles

When same noun is meant, article is not repeated.
Example: The secretary and headmaster has arrived (Same person). The secretary and the headmaster have arrived (two persons).
He is a better politician than leader.
When different adjectives qualify the same noun then article is not repeated. But if the adjectives qualify different nouns, article is repeated.
Example: He has a black and white dog (Same dog with two colors). He has a black and a white dog (Two dogs with different color).

pronoun

Pronoun

Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Pronoun is generally used if it is not preceded by a noun. Pronoun must agree with its preceding number, gender and person.
Kinds of pronoun.

PERSONAL PRONOUN
Person          subject           object         Adjective           Possessive            Reflexive
1ST               I, we            me, us         my, our             mine, ours          myself, ourselves
2nd               you               you             your                       yours              yourself, yourselves
3rd           he (male),      him, her,       his, her,                  his, hers,           himself, herself,    
              she (female)       it, them           its,   their               its, theirs          itself, themselves
         It (neuter), they.

Subject pronouns are used as the subject to a verb. In formal writing after ‘than’ or ‘as’ subject form of pronoun is used.
 Example: He/ she is fond of playing chess. His brother is taller than he (is).  Tina is not as good as she (is).

Object pronoun is used after verbs and prepositions.
Example: It is he who is to blame for the mistake. He likes me. The man is known to her. The teacher has divided the two books between him and you. Let us enjoy the victory of our team. Let me show you how to draw this.
After be to verbs, nominative form of pronoun is grammatically correct. It is I. it is he. It is she. But in informal conversation objective form of pronoun is also used. It is me. It was him. But in complex sentence nominative form must be used. It was he who came first.

Use of pronoun after ‘Than’ and ‘As’: He is taller than I (am). Mother likes you more than me. I love him better than her.  Her sister more intelligent than her (she is). You are not as strong as I am.

Use of pronoun after ‘Between’, ‘But’, and ‘Let’: After ‘between’ objective case is used. When ‘but’ is used as preposition objective case of pronoun is used.  After ‘let’ always objective case is used.

Possessive adjectives are used as adjectives and used with nouns.
My/ our/ your/ his/ her/ their school is big.
His/ her/ your brother is my best friend.

 Possessive pronouns denote ownership. They are used after ‘to be’ verbs or the preposition ‘of’. They are used without a noun after them.
Example: This book is mine/ ours/ yours/ his/ hers/ theirs.
These are the books of mine/ ours/ yours/ his/ hers/ theirs. But ‘his’ is used both independently and with a noun. it is his book. This book is his.

Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object are same, or the subject receives the result of the action.
Example: He killed himself. I absented myself from the school. We availed ourselves of the opportunities.
Self or selves- pronouns are also called Emphatic pronouns when used for emphasis.
Example: I myself saw the thief. He himself solved the sum. We ourselves heard the minister speak.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point to the nouns going before them and are used instead of them. ‘This’, ‘that’, ‘such’, ‘so’, ‘the same’, ‘one’ etc. are demonstrative pronouns.

‘This, that’ indicate the noun or nouns near to the speaker. This is a history book. These are the books of Rama.
‘That, those’ indicate the noun or nouns remote from the speaker. That is a kite. Those are the singers coming to perform.
‘Such’ indicate of this kind. He is good man. Such a man admired everywhere.
‘So’ indicates a fact, thought, or saying. Who says so (a fact)? I think so (so indicates same thought).
‘The same’ indicates before said documents or situation vacant. The company has wanted typist. I am going to apply for the same (post of typist).
‘One’ indicates receding singular noun and ‘ones’ for the receding plural nouns. There are many apples but I want the fresh ones (fresh apples).
Note: if demonstrative pronouns take nouns after them, they are called demonstrative adjectives. Demonstrative pronoun Demonstrative adjective

This is a beautiful picture. This picture is beautiful.

Relative pronoun

Relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, what, that, as and but. They qualify some nouns preceding them. They also join two clauses. After the relative pronouns verb is used in accordance to the preceding nouns.

Who: (qualifies persons): I know the man who called you. The woman who lost her son     went to Buddha. The boys who are playing are very intelligent.  
Whom: (objective form of who): The boy whom you meet yesterday is my brother. But in modern English ‘Who’ is used in place of ‘Whom’.
Whose: (possessive form of who): The woman whose son died in an accident has no pleasure in life.
Which (refers to children, lower animals and things without life): The cat which………, The baby which……, The bridge which…..., The tree which……, The group which……….
What (antecedent understood): what cannot be cured must be endured. I cannot tell you what has happened there.
As (such+as, as+as, the same+as): this is the same pen as I bought yesterday. He is such a good man as all liked. He planted as many trees as he could.
But (in sense of ‘who not’, ‘which not’): There is no person but wants to be happy. There is no mother but loves her children. But wants= who does not want. But loves= who does not love.

That (instead of ‘who’, ‘whom’ or ‘which’): That is used after superlative adjective, in interrogative pronoun ‘who and which’, all, same, none, one, as and the only.
Example: he is the most intelligent boy that you have selected. Who is the boy that threw stones at the dog? All that is wanted is your help. This is the same dog that barked at me.

Omissions of Relative Pronouns: When it is the object of a verb and preposition, relative pronoun is not used.
Example: This is the man (whom) you saw. The flower vase (which) I bought yesterday is broken. This is the place we live in. But if the relative pronoun is in nominative case, it is used. I know the man who is on the stage.

Interrogative Pronoun
Interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, what, which.
In an interrogative sentence with ‘who’ it works as the subject. It needs no operators. No preposition is used before ‘who’. If ‘which’ and ‘what’ are placed with noun, they are called interrogative adjectives. ‘What’ works as an object of a verb. ‘Whose’ works as possessive case.  ‘Which’ refers to selective one or ones.
Examples: Who is the principal of your school? Who are the other players playing with him? Which is the house? What is your name? What is the condition of the patient? What book do you want? (Interrogative adjective) Which boy has given you this? (Interrogative adjective)

Different meanings of interrogative uses.
Who is your father? (Name/ parentage) What is your father? (Profession) Which is your farther? (Who among many).

Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to persons or tings on general. They do not qualify any particular person or thing. One, all, none, some, others, any, they, many, few, several, no one, everyone, etc. are indefinite pronouns.
Examples: Few can avoid flattery. One should not forget one’s duty. None lived in the house. Several of them came to the meeting. Many were satisfied to hear the speech. Always try to give importance to others. One of them has completed his/ her exam.
Note: when ‘One’ refers to one in number, the pronoun for it are ‘his, her, its.’ When ‘One’ refers to anyone, the pronoun for it is one’s.

Distributive Pronoun
Distributive pronouns refer to one person or thing from a group. Each, either, and neither are distributive pronouns.
Each: it is used any number and in three positions.
Each of the boys is very honest. (At the beginning of a sentence)
The boys received each a reward. (After verb)
The books cost two rupees each. (After number)
Either: it is used of two numbers only. It means one or the other of the two. Either oh the two boys has done this.
Neither: it is used of two numbers. It means not the one or the other.
Neither of the two sons is good.

Reciprocal pronoun
‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ are reciprocal pronoun. ‘Each other’ is used when two are referred to. ‘One another’ is used when more than two are referred to. The two bothers love each other. The boys love one another.

use of to Be verb

Use of to ‘Be’ verb
As principal verb

Be verbs are used to describe a person or thing or to say something about a person or thing. Be  verb is used to say about a person’s profession, characteristics, quality, or something about shape, color, size, and some other qualities of a thing or an animal or a person.

Be verb (present tense) am, is, & are.


1. Use of Am: It is used only after the first person ‘I’.
Example: I am a student of class ten. I am busy in solving sums. I am on my way to London.

2. Use of Is: This verb is used only after the third person singular subject (he, she, it, this, Ram, tiger, man etc.). Whatever we see or feel belongs to third person. He, she, John, India, chair, book, pen, water, honesty, kindness, tree all are third person.
Example:  John is my best friend. Water is necessary for every living being. She is my only sister.

3. Use of Are:  This form of be verb is used after any plural noun or pronoun and you (both singular and plural). We, they, boys, John and Brown, tigers, books, men, people, stars etc.
Example: They are at work. We are family. John and Brown are two friends. You are my friend (singular). You are my friends (plural).

Be verb (past tense) was, were.

1. Use of Was: It is used after any singular subject only. Third person or first person.
                          Example: It was a cold day yesterday. He was a doctor. I was in a great danger.

2. Use of Were: It is used after the plural subjects.
Example: Mr. Brown was present in marriage ceremony of John.  The students were ready to take part in the program. The pictures were all very charming.

 Be verb (future tense) shall be, will be.

1. ‘Shall be’ is not used in modern English.

2. ‘Will be’ is used after any subject singular or plural..
Example: The child will be very nice. It will be the third marriage anniversary of John tomorrow.  

                   Negative sentence with be verb.
Structure: subject + be verb+ not+ compliment.

This is not a good behavior. The climate of this place is not suitable at all. The mangoes were not sweet. It will not be right to say that I am not concerned about the matter.

                  Interrogative sentence with be verb.
Structure: Be verb+ subject + compliment?

Who/what/ where/ what/where/ which/ how + be verb+ subject+ compliment +?
What is the condition of the patient?  Is your father home? Are the boys interested in learning English Grammar? `How will be the child? Will you be my friend?

                                   Be verbs contracted forms

I am= I’m, I was not= I wasn’t,  I will= I’ll.
He is= he’s, he is not= he isn’t, he was not= he wasn’t, he will= he’ll, it is= it’s, it will= it’ll.
She is= she’s, she is not= she isn’t, she was not= she wasn’t, she will= she’ll.
You are= you’re, you are not= you aren’t, you were not= you weren’t, you will= you’ll, he will not= he won’t.
They are= they’re, they are not= they aren’t, they were not= they weren’t, they will= they’ll.
Here is= here’s, how is= how’s, that will= that’ll, that is= that’s, what will= what’ll.